Introduction to Computer

  • A System composed of various hardware and software components that work together to perform tasks and process data. 
  • A person is called computer literate if he is able to use a computer and run need based applications.
  • Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer or computing device. These are tangible, physical parts that you can see and touch.
    • Examples: 
      • central processing unit (CPU)
      • memory (RAM)
      • storage devices (hard drives and SSDs)
      • motherboard
      • graphics card, display, keyboard, mouse
      • various input/output ports (USB, HDMI, Ethernet, etc.).
  • Software is a collection of programs, data, and instructions that tell the computer how to perform specific tasks. It is intangible and consists of code and data stored on hardware.
    • Examples: 
      • operating systems (e.g., Windows, macOS, Linux)
      • application software (e.g., Microsoft Office, web browsers, video games), 
      • system utilities
      • programming languages

History OF Computers

The Abacus : 

  • Abacus is considered to be the first mechanical calculating device.
  • purpose : addition and subtraction
  • The abacus was developed by the Egyptians in the 10th century BC, but the final structure was given by Chinese academics in the 12th century AD

Napier

  • Napier’s Bones invented by John Napier.
  • Napier’s used the bone rods for counting purpose : addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,

Pascal’s calculator called ‘Pascaline’

  • In 1642, a French scientist Blaise Pascal invented this adding machine 
  • It could only add and subtract.
  • It was also called an adding machine.

Leibniz Calculator

  • Leibniz was successfully introduced in the market in the form of a calculator in 1646.
  • perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division

Difference Engine and Analytical Engine

  • British mathematician Charles Babbage invented the difference engine in 1822 which could perform calculations.
  • In 1842, Charles Babbage created the Analytical Engine, an automatic machine that worked according to punch card instructions and could perform basic arithmetic calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division).
  • The Analytical Engine can be considered the world’s first computer.
  • Charles Babbage is called the ‘Father of Modern Computers’.
  • Lady Ada Augusta entered the first program in the Analytical Engine. Therefore, he is also called the world’s first programmer.
  • Lady Ada Augusta invented the binary system, a two-digit number system.

Census Tabulator

  • In 1890, American scientist Herman Hollerith invented this electrically operated device which was used in the American census.
  • He invented Punch Cards as a memory for computer applications.
  • Punch card is a card made of paper in which computer data and programs are stored by making holes by punch. 
  • The data stored on the punch card was read by the punch card reader.

Primary components of a computer:

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

  • “brain” of the computer. 
  • It executes instructions, performs calculations, and manages data.
  • Modern CPUs are composed of multiple cores, allowing for parallel processing and improved performance.
  • Processing Instructions: process instructions provided by computer programs (software). These instructions are executed in a sequence, known as a program’s code, and the CPU fetches, decodes, and executes them in rapid succession.
  • Microprocessor/ Microchip :  A microprocessor is a central processing unit (CPU) that is fabricated on a single integrated circuit (IC) or microchip. 
    • Integrated Circuit: A microprocessor is a complex electronic component that incorporates millions or billions of transistors on a single silicon chip. 
  • Intel and AMD (AMD-Advanced Micro Devices) are two major microprocessor manufacturing companies.
    • Intel Core i7 (600, 700, 800, 900 series)
    • Intel Core i5 (400, 500 series)
    • Intel Core i3 (300 series)
    • Intel Pentium (P6000 series)
    • Intel Celeron (P4000 series)
    • Intel Xeon
    • Intel Core 2 Duo
    • Intel Atom
    • AMD Athlon
    • AMD Duron
  • Arithmetic and Logic Operations: 
    • Arithmetic operations – addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
    • logic operations-  AND, OR, NOT on data. 
  • Control Unit: manages the flow of instructions and data between various components of the computer, including memory, input/output devices, and storage.
  • Registers: The CPU has a set of high-speed, small-capacity memory locations called registers. 
    1. Registers store data temporarily while it is being processed. 
    2. Registers are the smallest, fastest, and most accessible storage locations within a CPU. 
    3. They are part of the CPU’s architecture and are used to store data temporarily during processing. 
  • Clock Speed: CPUs Processing speed, measured in Hertz (Hz) or gigahertz (GHz). 
    1. The clock speed determines how quickly the CPU can execute instructions. 
    2. Higher clock speeds generally result in faster processing.
  • Cores: Modern CPUs often have multiple processing cores, allowing them to handle multiple tasks simultaneously. 
    1. Dual-core, quad-core, and even higher core-count CPUs are common. 
    2. Multi-core CPUs can enhance multitasking and parallel processing performance.
  • Cache Memory: CPUs have cache memory, which is a small, high-speed memory directly accessible by the CPU. 
    1. Cache memory stores frequently used data and instructions to reduce the time it takes to access them from slower main memory (RAM).
    2. Cache memory is a type of high-speed volatile memory that sits between the CPU and RAM. 
    3. Its primary purpose is to store frequently used data and instructions to speed up the CPU’s access to these resources.
  • Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): CPUs are designed based on a specific instruction set architecture, which defines the set of instructions the CPU can execute. 
    1. Common ISAs include x86 (used in many personal computers), 
    2. ARM (used in mobile devices) 
    3. RISC-V (an open-source ISA)
  • 64-Bit and 32-Bit: CPUs come in both 64-bit and 32-bit architectures.
    1. 64-bit CPUs can handle larger memory addresses and data sizes than 32-bit CPUs, making them suitable for more demanding applications.
    2. A 32-bit system can address up to 2^32 of memory. a 32-bit system cannot access more than 4 GB of RAM, even if more is installed.

Motherboard:

    1. The motherboard is the main board of the computer. 
    2. It provides connections for all other components and houses the CPU, RAM, and other critical components.
    3. It contains various connectors, slots, and ports for expansion cards, memory modules, storage devices, and peripherals.
    4. The motherboard, also known as the mainboard or system board, 
    5. key components typically found on a motherboard:
  • CPU Socket or CPU Slot: The CPU socket or slot is where the central processing unit (CPU) is installed. 
  • RAM Slots (Memory Slots): RAM slots are where memory modules, such as DIMMs (Dual In-Line Memory Modules) or SO-DIMMs (Small Outline Dual In-Line Memory Modules), are inserted. These slots allow for system memory (RAM) expansion.
  • Expansion Slots: Expansion slots, like PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) slots, provide connectivity for add-on cards, such as graphics cards, sound cards, network cards, and storage controllers. The number and type of expansion slots can vary.
  • Chipset: The chipset is a set of integrated circuits on the motherboard that manages data flow between the CPU, memory, storage devices, and other components. It includes the Northbridge and Southbridge (on older motherboards) or equivalent components on modern chipsets.
  1. BIOS/UEFI Chip: The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) chip contains firmware that initializes and configures hardware during the boot-up process. It also contains settings for system configuration and overclocking.

  • Connectors and Headers: Motherboards have various connectors and headers for external devices and peripherals. These include USB headers, audio headers, front panel connectors for power and LEDs, SATA connectors for storage drives, and fan headers.
  1. Power Connectors: Power connectors on the motherboard provide electrical power to the CPU and other components. Common connectors include the main ATX power connector and the CPU power connector (usually 4-pin or 8-pin).
  2. CMOS Battery: The CMOS battery, typically a coin-cell battery, provides power to maintain the motherboard’s BIOS/UEFI settings and system clock when the computer is turned off or unplugged.
  3. Back I/O Ports (I/O Shield): The back I/O shield contains external connectors for peripherals and devices, such as USB ports, audio jacks, Ethernet ports, HDMI or VGA ports, and more.
  4. VRM (Voltage Regulator Module): The VRM on the motherboard regulates the voltage supplied to the CPU, ensuring stable and efficient power delivery. High-end motherboards may have advanced VRM designs for overclocking.
  5. Heat Sinks and Cooling Solutions: Motherboards often have heat sinks and cooling solutions to dissipate heat generated by components like the CPU and VRM. These can include passive heat sinks, active cooling fans, or both.
  6. Diagnostic LEDs or Displays: Some motherboards feature diagnostic LEDs or displays that provide information about system status, error codes, and component issues during startup.
  7. Onboard Audio and LAN: Many motherboards include onboard audio chips and Ethernet controllers for audio output and network connectivity. High-end motherboards may feature premium audio components.
  8. M.2 Slots: M.2 slots allow for the installation of M.2 SSDs, providing high-speed storage solutions.
  9. Wi-Fi/Bluetooth Modules (Optional): Some motherboards come with built-in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth modules for wireless connectivity.

Random Access Memory (RAM):

  • RAM is the computer’s short-term memory. It stores data and programs that are actively being used or processed by the CPU.
  • RAM is volatile, meaning its contents are lost when the computer is powered off or restarted.

Storage Devices:

  • Storage devices, such as hard disk drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs), provide long-term storage for data, applications, and the operating system.
  • HDDs use spinning disks, while SSDs use flash memory for faster access speeds.

Input Devices:

  • Input devices allow users to provide data and commands to the computer. Common examples include keyboards, mice, touchpads, and digital pens.
  • More specialized input devices, such as webcams and microphones, are used for tasks like video conferencing and voice recognition.

Output Devices:

  • Output devices display information generated by the computer. Common examples include monitors (displays), speakers, and printers.
  • Display technologies range from traditional monitors to modern LED and OLED screens.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU):

  • The GPU, or graphics card, is responsible for rendering images and video. 
  • It accelerates graphics-intensive tasks, including gaming, video editing, and 3D rendering.
  • Some CPUs have integrated graphics, while others rely on dedicated GPUs.
  • Size of a Graphics Card does not impact a computer’s general performance.

Optical Drives:

  • Optical drives, like DVD and Blu-ray drives, are used for reading and writing optical discs. 
  • They have become less common due to the rise of digital media and downloads.

Power Supply Unit (PSU):

  • The PSU converts electricity from the wall outlet into the various voltages required by the computer’s components.
  • It provides power through connectors to the motherboard, CPU, GPU, and other devices.

Expansion Cards:

  • Expansion cards are additional components that can be added to the motherboard to enhance the computer’s functionality. 
  • Examples : graphics cards, network cards, and sound cards.

Cooling Systems:

  • Cooling systems, including fans and heat sinks, help dissipate heat generated by the CPU and GPU to prevent overheating.
  • Some high-end systems also use liquid cooling solutions.

Ports and Connectors:

  • Computers have various ports and connectors for connecting external devices and peripherals. 
  • Common ports : USB, HDMI, Ethernet, audio jacks, and card readers.
  • Ports in computing refer to physical or virtual interfaces that enable communication between a computer or device and external peripherals, networks, or other devices. 
  • In Peripheral I/O , There are 256 Output Ports.
  • There are several types of ports, each serving a specific purpose. 

USB (Universal Serial Bus) Ports:

  • USB ports are versatile and widely used for connecting various peripherals like keyboards, mice, printers, external hard drives, and smartphones.
  • USB Poort is a protocol for transferring data to and from digital devices.
  • USB Poort is a Standard Cable Connection Interface.
  • They come in various versions, including USB-A, USB-B, USB-C, and micro-USB, with different shapes and sizes.

Ethernet Port (RJ-45):

  • Ethernet ports are used for wired network connections, such as connecting a computer to a router or a local area network (LAN).
  • They support data transfer at various speeds, including 10/100/1000 Mbps (megabits per second) or even higher for gigabit Ethernet.

HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) Port:

  • HDMI ports are used for connecting computers, TVs, monitors, and other devices to transmit high-definition audio and video signals.
  • They are commonly found on multimedia devices like laptops, desktops, gaming consoles, and home theater equipment.

DisplayPort:

  • DisplayPort ports are similar to HDMI but are often found on computer monitors and laptops for high-resolution video and audio transmission.
  • DisplayPort connectors can support multiple displays and high refresh rates.

VGA (Video Graphics Array) Port:

  • VGA ports are older video connectors used for connecting monitors and projectors to computers. They transmit analog video signals.
  • It has 15 Holes.
  • VGA is being phased out in favor of digital interfaces like HDMI and DisplayPort.

Audio Jacks:

  • Audio jacks come in 3.5mm and 6.35mm sizes and are used for connecting headphones, microphones, speakers, and other audio equipment.
  • They are commonly found on computers, smartphones, and audio devices.

Thunderbolt Port:

  • Thunderbolt ports are high-speed data transfer ports used for connecting peripherals like external storage devices, monitors, and docks.
  • Thunderbolt 3 and Thunderbolt 4 support data transfer speeds of up to 40 Gbps and are compatible with USB-C connectors.

Firewire (IEEE 1394) Port:

  • Firewire ports, also known as IEEE 1394 ports, were used for high-speed data transfer between devices like external hard drives and digital video cameras.
  • They have become less common with the rise of USB and Thunderbolt.

Serial Port (RS-232):

  • Serial ports were used for connecting peripherals like modems, mice, and older printers. 
  • They can transmit and Recieve data sequentially, bit by bit.
  • Serial ports use a DB9-pin or DB25-pin male or female connector, depending on the type. 
  • They are largely obsolete and have been replaced by USB and other modern interfaces.

Parallel Port:

  • Parallel ports were used for connecting older printers and peripherals that required high-speed data transfer. 
  • They transmit data in parallel, with multiple bits simultaneously.
  • Also Called Printer Port.
  • Like serial ports, parallel ports have become obsolete, replaced by USB and other interfaces.

PS/2 Port:

  • PS/2 ports were used for connecting keyboards and mice to older computers. They have largely been replaced by USB ports.

eSATA Port:

  • eSATA ports allow external storage devices to be connected directly to a computer, providing faster data transfer speeds compared to USB or Firewire.

M.2 and SATA Ports:

  • These ports are used for connecting internal storage devices like SSDs (Solid State Drives) to a computer’s motherboard. M.2 is faster than SATA.

Operating System (OS):

  • The operating system is software that manages the computer’s hardware and provides a user interface for interacting with applications and files.
  • Examples of operating systems : Windows, macOS, Linux, and various mobile operating systems.

Software Applications:

  • Software applications, also known as programs or apps, are used to perform specific tasks. 
  • Examples : web browsers, word processors, games, and graphic design software.

Network Interface Card (NIC):

  • A network interface card enables the computer to connect to networks, including local area networks (LANs) and the internet.
  • NICs can be integrated into the motherboard or added as expansion cards.
  • Examples: Ethernet Card is a Network Adaptor used to set up a Wired Network.
  • Ethernet Card is also known as Network Interface Card (NIC). 
Generation
First1940-56Vaccum Tubes
Second1956- 63Transistors
Third1964-71IC (Integrated Chips)
Fourth1971-2010Microprocessors

VLSI – Very large 

Fifth2010- PresentArtificial Intelligence (AI)

ULSI – Ultra large

First Generation (1940s-1950s):

    • developed during and after World War II.
    • They used vacuum tubes..
    • large, expensive, and consumed a considerable amount of power.
    • Programming languages : Machine Languages
    • Examples:  
      • ENIAC
      • UNIVAC I – Universal Automatic Computer
      • SEAC – Standards Eastern Automatic Computer
      • EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
      • IBM 650
      • IBM 701
  • ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer):
    • ENIAC is considered one of the first general-purpose, fully electronic digital computers.
    • It was developed during World War II at the University of Pennsylvania’s Moore School of Electrical Engineering.

Second Generation (1950s-1960s):

  • They used transistors, which were smaller, more reliable, and consumed less power.
  • Magnetic core memory was introduced as a more reliable form of data storage.
  • Programming languages : Assembly language
    • COBOL
    • FORTRAN
  • Examples : 
    • IBM 1401
    • DEC PDP-8.

Third Generation (1960s-1970s):

    • use of integrated circuits (ICs) or microchips, which further reduced size and power consumption while increasing processing speed.
    • Programming languages : high-level programming languages
      •  BASIC
      • FORTRAN
      •  C 
  • COBOL
  • Pascal
  • Operating systems, including UNIX, were developed.
  • Examples : 
    • IBM System
    • IBM 360
    • IBM 370
    • PDP-8
    • DEC PDP-11
    • ICL 2900

Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s):

  • VLSI microprocessors, which combine CPU and memory functions on a single chip.
  • Personal computers (PCs) became more prevalent, with the release of the Apple II and IBM PC.
  • Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and the mouse were introduced.
  • The development of the internet and networking technologies began.
  • Programming languages : high-level programming languages
    •  Python
    • C#
    • JAVA
    • RUST
    • KOTLIN
  • Examples : 
    • Apple Macintosh
    • IBM PC/AT.

Fifth Generation (1980s-Present):

  • ULSI microprocessors and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies.
  • The internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) transformed communication and information sharing.
  • Programming languages : Understand Human Language
  • Examples 👍
    • IBM’s Blue Gene
    • AI systems like IBM Watson.

Types of Computers : 

Computers come in various types, each designed for specific purposes and with varying capabilities. Here are some of the most common types of computers:

Microcomputer  / Personal Computers (PCs):

    • A microcomputer, often referred to as a personal computer (PC), is a type of computer that is designed for individual use. 
    • Desktop Computers: Traditional PCs that consist of a computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. They are versatile and suitable for various tasks.
    • Laptop Computers: Portable PCs with integrated components, including a screen, keyboard, and pointing device. Laptops are suitable for on-the-go computing.
    • All-in-One Computers: Compact desktop computers where the monitor and computer components are integrated into a single unit.
    • Tablet Computers:Tablets are portable devices with touchscreen interfaces.
    • Smartphones:Smartphones are mobile devices with computing capabilities, typically featuring touchscreens, communication capabilities, and a wide range of apps.
  • Pocket PC:
  • Palmtop:
  • Handheld Computers: PDA (Personal digital assistant)
  • Mac : Developed by Apple in 1984 as Macintosh and renamed Mac in 1998.

Workstations:

  • Workstations are high-performance computers designed for tasks such as 3D modeling, video editing, and scientific simulations. 
  • They offer advanced processing power and graphics capabilities.

Servers:

  • Servers are designed to provide services, resources, or data to other computers or clients over a network. 
  • They can handle multiple simultaneous requests and often run specialized server software.

Mainframes:

  • Mainframe computers are powerful, large-scale machines used by organizations for mission-critical tasks like processing large volumes of data and running enterprise-level applications.
  • Mainframes are physically large and housed in specialized data centers.
  • Mainframes are equipped with multiple processors (CPUs), often running in parallel, which allows them to handle complex computations and multitasking efficiently. 
  • Examples:  IBM Z

Mini-Computers:

  • Mini-computers are smaller and less powerful than mainframes but offer substantial computing power. 
  • They are often used for tasks like database management and business applications.
  • Mini-computers, also known as midrange computers or minicomputers, are a category of computers that fall between microcomputers and mainframe computers in terms of processing power, storage capacity, and scalability. 
  • Examples: 

Quantum Computers (Emerging):

  • Quantum computers use quantum bits (qubits) and quantum principles to perform certain types of calculations exponentially faster than classical computers. 
  • They are still in the early stages of development and primarily used for research.

Analog Computers:

  • Analog computers work with continuous values, representing data as physical quantities that can vary smoothly over a range. 
  • These values are typically represented using electrical voltages, currents, or other continuous physical phenomena, such as fluid pressure or mechanical movement.
  • Analog computers perform calculations by manipulating these continuous values through analog circuits.
  • Analog computers Do not Require Any Storage Device.
  • The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Mumbai created the first computer in India, known as TIFRAC (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Automatic Calculator).The pilot machine was developed in 1950 and was operational in 1956.
  • Samarendra Kumar Mitra was an Indian scientist and mathematician. He designed, developed and constructed India’s first computer (an electronic analog computer) at the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI), Calcutta  in 1953-54.

Digital Computers:

  • Digital computers work with discrete values represented in a binary format (0s and 1s). 
  • These values are manipulated as binary digits, or bits, which are processed using digital logic gates.
  • Digital computers perform calculations by executing instructions encoded as sequences of binary digits. 
  • These instructions are executed by the central processing unit (CPU) and are controlled by software programs written in programming languages.
  • The first digital computer in India was a British-made HEC 2M machine that was installed in the Indian Statistical Institute in Kolkata in 1955.
  • Sidharth is the first Digital computer developed in India By Electronics Corporation of India and installed in Banglore post office on 16 Aug 1986.

Hybrid computers : 

  • Hybrid computers are computing systems that combine the characteristics of both digital and analog computers. 
  • These machines use both digital and analog components to perform specific tasks or solve particular types of problems. 
  • Applications of Hybrid Computers:
    • Scientific Research: For real-time data acquisition and analysis. For example, they can be used in weather forecasting, nuclear physics, and fluid dynamics simulations.
    • Aerospace and Defense: in Air Traffic,  radar systems and missile guidance.
    • Medicine: medical imaging and diagnostic equipment, such as computed tomography (CT) scanners and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines, where they process analog signals and perform digital image reconstruction.

Footloose  industry: 

  • A “footloose industry” is a term used in economics and geography to describe an industry that is not tied to a specific location or dependent on particular geographic factors. 
  • These industries can be established and operate almost anywhere

Supercomputers

    • Supercomputers are the most powerful and high-performance computing systems in existence. 
    • They are designed to tackle complex and computationally intensive tasks that require enormous processing power and memory. 
    • Supercomputers are used for scientific simulations, Climate Research and weather forecasting, nuclear research, computational chemistry, and various other applications where massive data processing and high-speed calculations are essential. 
    • Father of Supercomputers -Seymour Cray
      • CDC 6600 : The first supercomputer was built in 1964 by SEYMOUR CRAY. 
      • Control Data Corporation (CDC)
      • Cray- 1: The first supercomputer A/Q Guinness World Records
        • In 1972, Seymour Cray founded Cray Research, Inc., a company and developed The Cray-1 in 1976.
    • Father of Indian Supercomputers – Vijay Bhatkar
    • Founder of C-DAC: Bhatkar is perhaps best known as the founder of the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) in Pune, India, in 1988. 
    • Param Supercomputer: Under Bhatkar’s leadership, C-DAC developed India’s first supercomputer called “Param 8000” in 1991 and “Param 10000.” in 1998.   
      • The name “PARAM” stands for “PARAllel Machine.”
  • PARAM Yuva: PARAM Yuva, introduced around 2008, was designed for academic and research institutions.
      • PARAM Yuva 2: 
  • PARAM Padma: PARAM Padma was developed in 2015 and was named after the lotus flower.
  • PARAM Siddhi: PARAM Siddhi, launched in 2020.
  • PARAM Brahma: PARAM Brahma, also introduced in 2020, was developed for artificial intelligence (AI) 
  • PARAM Shakti:. It is part of the Shakti microprocessor family.
      • Eka, the first Indian machine to feature among the ten fastest supercomputers in the world and Fastest in Asia developed by TATA in 2007.
      • PARAM Shivay: First supercomputer assembled indigenously was installed at IIT BHU.
      • PARAM Sanganak: IIT Kharagpur.
    • Vijay Bhatkar was awarded the Padma Shri, one of India’s highest civilian honors, in 2000.
    • The speed of supercomputers is typically measured in terms of FLOPS, which stands for “floating-point operations per second.”
      • GigaFLOPS (GFLOPS): 
      • TeraFLOPS (TFLOPS): 
      • PetaFLOPS (PFLOPS): 
      • ExaFLOPS (EFLOPS): 
      • ZettaFLOPS (ZFLOPS) and Beyond: 
    • Pratyush supercomputer : India’s First Multi PetaFlop Supercomputer setup at IITM Pune for weather Forecasting.
  • Top 10 SupercomputersTill June 2022
      • 1.Frontier : USA
      • 2.Fugaku (Japan)
      • 3.Lumi (Finland)
      • 4.Summit (IBM) : United States
      • 5.Sierra (IBM) : United States
      • 6. Sunway : China
      • 7.Peralmutter  : United States
      • 8.selene : United States
      • 9.Tianhe-2 : China
      • 10.Adastra : China
  • As of June 2023, Maximum Number of supercomputers
    • 1.United States:  150 supercomputers
    • 2.China : 134 supercomputers
    • 3.Germany : 36 supercomputers.

Characteristics of Computers

Speed: Computers can process data and perform calculations at incredibly high speeds, often measured in terms of gigahertz (GHz) for central processing units (CPUs) and teraflops or petaflops for supercomputers. 

Accuracy: Computers perform calculations with exceptional accuracy, making them reliable tools for scientific, engineering, and mathematical tasks. Digital computers, in particular, can provide precise results when working with numerical data.

Storage: Computers can store vast amounts of data in various forms, including text, images, videos, and more. Storage capacity is measured in gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB), or even petabytes (PB) for larger systems.

Versatility: Computers are highly versatile and can perform a wide range of tasks, from word processing and data analysis to graphics rendering and scientific simulations. Their versatility comes from their ability to execute different software programs.

Automation: Computers can automate repetitive tasks through software programs and scripts. This automation enhances productivity and efficiency in various fields, including manufacturing, data processing, and business operations.

Multitasking: Modern computers can handle multiple tasks simultaneously, allowing users to run multiple applications and switch between them seamlessly. Multitasking is a crucial feature for productivity and efficiency.

Connectivity: Computers can connect to the internet and other devices, enabling communication, data sharing, and access to a vast amount of information and resources online.

Scalability: Computers can be scaled up or down in terms of processing power, memory, and storage to meet specific needs. This scalability allows organizations to adapt their computing resources to changing requirements.

User Interface: Computers have various user interfaces, including graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and command-line interfaces (CLIs), that enable users to interact with the system and applications.

Networking: Computers can be connected to form networks, allowing them to communicate and share resources. This networking capability is fundamental for the functioning of the internet and intranets.

Security: Computers have security features to protect data and systems from unauthorized access, malware, and cyberattacks. Security measures include firewalls, antivirus software, encryption, and access controls.

Reliability: Modern computers are designed to be reliable and have redundancy features to minimize downtime. They undergo rigorous testing and quality control during manufacturing.

Note : IQ stands for “Intelligence Quotient,” and it is a numerical score or measure used to assess a person’s cognitive abilities and intelligence relative to a standard population. IQ tests are designed to evaluate a person’s problem-solving skills, logical reasoning, memory, mathematical ability, language comprehension, and other cognitive functions.

Introduction to Computer